Investopedia

Fact checked by Pete Rathburn
Reviewed by David Kindness

GOOG vs. GOOGL: An Overview

GOOG and GOOGL are stock ticker symbols for Alphabet, Google’s parent company. The main difference between the GOOG and GOOGL stock ticker symbols is that GOOG shares (Class C) have no voting rights, while GOOGL shares (Class A) do.

The company created a new class of nonvoting stock in April 2014 and issued a Class C share for each Class A share previously held by shareholders. Anyone who held A shares at the time of the split received an equal number of C shares, but their voting power did not increase.

The stock split enabled founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page to take advantage of public-market liquidity while retaining majority control of the company.

Key Takeaways

• Alphabet, Google’s parent company, has two listed share classes that use slightly different ticker symbols.
• GOOGL shares are its Class A shares, also known as common stock, which have the typical one-share, one-vote structure.
• GOOG shares are Class C shares that confer no voting rights.
• Because of their voting rights, A shares may trade at a premium to C shares; however, in reality, the prices of the two are often quite close to one another.
• There is a third type of share, Class B shares, which are held by founders and insiders and confer 10 votes per share. Class B shares can’t be publicly traded.

GOOG

GOOG shares are the company’s Class C shares. Class C shares give stockholders an ownership stake in the company, just like Class A shares, but unlike common shares, they do not confer voting rights on shareholders. As a result, these shares tend to trade at a modest discount to Class A shares. These Class C shares should not be confused with the type of C shares issued by some mutual funds.

GOOGL

GOOGL shares are categorized as Class A shares. Class A shares are known as common shares. They give investors an ownership stake and, typically, voting rights. They are the most common type of shares.

A Summary of Alphabet’s Class Structures

• Class A: Held by a regular investor with regular voting rights (GOOGL)
• Class B: Held by the founders, with 10 times the voting power of Class A shares
• Class C: No voting rights, typically held by employees and some Class A stockholders (GOOG)

Note

Google’s parent company, Alphabet, announced a 20-for-1 stock split in February 2022. The split took effect on July 15, 2022.

GOOG vs. GOOGL: Which Is a Better Investment?

Because GOOGL shares come with voting rights, they may be considered more valuable. Shareholders with this type of stock can have a say in Google’s corporate policy, vote for the board of directors, and approve or disapprove of any major decisions.

For this reason, GOOGL shares tend to trade at a slightly higher price than GOOG shares. However, most retail investors cannot buy enough shares to significantly affect the company’s policies, making GOOG the slightly more cost-effective choice. In practice, the difference between the two share classes is usually small due to arbitrage.

How Voting Shares Are Used

Often, activist investors band together and accumulate shares to press companies into enacting shareholder-friendly initiatives that boost stock prices, such as cost-cutting, share buybacks, and special dividends.

This process can become hostile, with activists engaging in public battles to win board seats and wrest control of the company from management. After issuing nonvoting shares to retain majority control, Brin and Page need not worry about this possibility.

In 2017, S&P Dow Jones Indices announced that it would no longer add companies with multiple share classes or limited shareholder rights to its most popular indexes while grandfathering in those already included.

Are GOOGL Shares More Valuable Than GOOG Shares?

Because GOOGL shares have voting rights, and because these rights have some value, they often trade at a slight premium. In reality, GOOG and GOOGL often trade for just around the same price. Sometimes, one share class will trade at a relative premium to the other, but due to arbitrage opportunities, these spreads will often close over time.

When Was the GOOG Stock Split?

On July 15, 2022, Google conducted one of the largest stock splits in history. It was a 20-for-one split, meaning that any investor with a share of GOOG or GOOGL stock before the split had 20 shares of the stock after the split. This affected all share classes of Google stock, making the shares significantly more affordable to retail investors.

What Are Alphabet’s Class B Shares?

Alphabet has a class of B shares that are only owned by insiders, and do not trade on stock exchanges. The B shares are thus owned by Sergey Brin, Larry Page, Eric Schmidt, and a few other directors. Unlike A shares that confer one vote per share, shareholders of B shares receive 10 votes.

The Bottom Line

There’s definitely a difference between the price of the two types of Google shares that you can buy, though it is relatively small. If you feel that voting at the stockholders’ meeting is important to you, then aim for the A shares.

Learn how to turn potential financial tragedy into a temporary setback

Reviewed by Khadija Khartit
Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez

A personal financial crisis can strike at any time, whether due to job loss, medical emergencies, or economic downturns. Without preparation, these events can cause additional stress and financial instability. Below are ten effective strategies to help you prepare for and manage a financial crisis.

Key Takeaways

• Maintain an emergency fund to cover at least three to six months of expenses.
• Create a budget, track expenses, and eliminate discretionary spending to free up financial resources.
• Pay bills on time, reduce high-interest debt, and negotiate better repayment terms.
• Explore additional income streams and ensure adequate insurance coverage.
• Continuously adjust financial strategies to stay prepared.

1. Maximize Your Liquid Savings

Having readily available cash provides a safety net during financial crises. Setting aside money in high-yield savings, money market, or checking accounts can ensure you can access funds immediately.

Note that while the Federal Reserve no longer imposes requirements restricting the number of withdrawals people can make from their savings accounts, some banks and credit unions may still limit withdrawals, which can make it harder to access cash when you need it.Make sure to read the fine print on your account.

Experts usually recommend building up an emergency fund that covers at least three to six months of living expenses. To establish an emergency fund, consider saving over time—it may be easier to allocate a few hundred dollars to a savings account every month rather than saving a lump-sum all at once.

2. Create a Budget and Stick to It

Budgeting plays a key role in financial preparedness. By carefully tracking your income and expenses, you can view your financial situation and identify areas where you can cut costs. Utilize budgeting tools or spreadsheets to categorize expenses and set spending limits. Prioritize bills such as rent, utilities, groceries, and insurance. Regularly review and adjust your budget so it remains relevant.

Important

Inflation may impact cost categories differently. Price increases at the grocery store may be less than the cost increases you’d experience at your favorite restaurant.

3. Cut Unnecessary Expenses

Reducing discretionary spending frees up funds for essential needs. Analyze your monthly expenses and identify areas where you can cut back. Dining out, streaming services, subscriptions, and impulse purchases can add up quickly. Consider preparing meals at home and using coupons or cash-back programs for shopping.

4. Avoid Late Fees and Finance Charges

Late payments on bills and loans can lead to hefty fees, penalties, and damage to your credit score. Organizing your finances and setting up automatic payments helps ensure you pay your bills on time. Use phone reminders, budgeting apps, or calendar alerts to track due dates and avoid unnecessary charges. Set up auto-withdrawal payments where you can.

Contact creditors to arrange a solution if you cannot make a payment. This helps to indicate to creditors that you’re interested in paying off your debt.

Federal law allows individuals to obtain a free copy of their credit report annually from each of the three nationwide credit bureaus, Equifax, Experian, and TransUnion.

5. Take Stock of Your Non-Cash Assets

Beyond cash savings, non-cash assets can provide some relief. Conduct an inventory of gift cards, airline miles, loyalty rewards, and other assets that can offset expenses. Selling unused items—such as electronics, furniture, or collectibles—can generate quick cash.

Valuable items like jewelry or artwork may be sold or leveraged during a crisis. Therefore, you won’t have to pay additional expenses to maintain those assets.

6. Pay Down High-Interest Debt

Total U.S. household debt grew from around $8 trillion in 2004 to over $18 trillion in 2024. High-interest debt, especially credit card balances, can drain your finances quickly.

The debt avalanche method helps prioritize debts with the highest interest rates. With a debt avalanche method, you make minimum payments on all outstanding accounts and use extra money to pay the bill with the highest interest rate. If you struggle with payments, explore balance transfer options, negotiate lower interest rates, or consolidate debt through a personal loan.

7. Look for Ways to Earn Extra Cash

Explore opportunities such as freelancing, part-time work, or monetizing a hobby to boost income. Gig economy jobs like ride-sharing, delivery services, or online tutoring provide flexible income options. If your current job allows, consider negotiating for a raise, taking on overtime, or pursuing additional certifications (that your company may pay for) to increase your earnings.

8. Review and Optimize Insurance Coverage

Insurance serves as a financial safeguard against unexpected medical issues or loss. Review your health, auto, home, and life insurance policies to ensure adequate coverage and balance affordability with protection.

Increasing deductibles for all policies may reduce monthly premiums (though this means you’ll have to pay before coverage kicks in), while bundling policies can result in discounts. This also goes hand-in-hand with potentially disposing of unnecessary personal assets covered by umbrella policies. However, consider keeping coverage for potential risks such as disability or critical illness—for some, skimping on insurance could prove detrimental in the long run.

9. Keep Up With Routine Maintenance

Routine maintenance for your car and home prevents expensive repairs and prolongs the lifespan of essential assets. Regularly servicing an automobile prevents breakdowns, while maintaining your home may prevent structural issues. Additionally, try to maintain your health with annual or routine check-ups to detect medical issues early and avoid problems later down the line.

10. Plan for the Long Term

Financial crises may be temporary, but long-term planning provides lasting security. Invest in retirement accounts like a 401(k) or an individual Retirement Account (IRA), contribute to a diversified investment portfolio, and explore passive income opportunities.

Balance your emergency fund and retirement savings and maintain a consistent strategy. Although a financial setback may make it hard to contribute the recommended 15% in your 401(k), try to save at least enough to earn the employer match. For example, if an employer offers a full 3% match, you must contribute at least 3% before your employer contributes an additional 3%.

The Bottom Line

Preparing for a personal financial crisis requires discipline, planning, and proactive decision-making. Building an emergency fund, creating a budget, cutting unnecessary expenses, and securing additional income sources fortify your financial position. Paying debt, optimizing insurance, and making long-term savings and retirement strategies can also reduce unexpected financial burdens.

Statistics about people falling short of saving enough for retirement are commonplace. Many people struggle to put away a suitable amount to live on once they stop working. However, it’s typically much harder for women, who tend to shoulder more responsibilities outside of work, including raising children and caring for older family members.

Things are made worse by an advantage women typically have over men—a longer life expectancy. “Women not saving as much would be an issue even if women and men had the same life expectancies,” Melody Evans, a wealth management advisor, told TIAA in a report on closing the retirement wealth gap. “But it’s even bigger since women have longer retirements. Women should be coming to retirement with more money than men because they have to spread it over more years.”

Key Takeaways

• Women retire with 30% less retirement income than men, and they live longer on average.
• Caregiving duties force many women to work fewer hours, miss out on career opportunities, take extended leave, decline promotions, and retire earlier.
• These issues can last a woman’s entire working life, reducing earnings, which affects Social Security payments and retirement investment contributions.

Women Live Longer Yet Have Less Retirement Savings

A 2025 Nationwide study found that among female investors, more than two-thirds (67%) who have had caregiving responsibilities for children or aging parents say it has impacted their careers, with 18% saying those responsibilities have prevented them from saving for retirement. Other studies have found that women have fewer retirement accounts, contribute less to them, and think less about saving for retirement than men. All told, women have 30% less in retirement income compared to men, according to the TIAA Institute.

Despite this, women have to save for longer retirements, living about 5.4 years longer than men on average, according to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention life expectancy figures. The life expectancy for women in the U.S. was just over 80 years in 2022.

Since overall life expectancy statistics factor in people who died earlier, without reaching an advanced age, a U.S. Department of Labor statistic makes this issue clearer: Women retiring at age 67 can expect to live another 20 years—two years longer than men.

Important

Nearly a fifth of women (18%) say they don’t plan to retire, compared to 11% of men, according to a TIAA survey conducted in 2023.

Caregiving Takes Precedence Over Retirement Planning

Unpaid caregiving responsibilities continue to disproportionately fall on women in the U.S. About half of millennial women (55%) and Gen X women (47%) who support children or aging parents say they have experienced career or income disruptions due to caregiving responsibilities.

That affects retirement savings in many ways, as women work fewer hours, face more limits on their professional development, take extended leave from work, and decline or delay promotions. All of these factors can lower earnings, which in turn can reduce Social Security payments and contributions to workplace retirement savings plans.

Meanwhile, unpaid caregiving responsibilities are only expected to become a more widespread challenge as the number of older Americans is expected to grow in the coming years. According to a Wells Fargo estimate, an additional 1.7 million older adults will require care by 2032, totaling 7.1 million people.

How Women Can Buck The Trend

In the TIAA report on the retirement wealth gap, TIAA advisory consultant Kayla Stern offered tips for women to improve retirement savings:

• Use the automatic payroll deduction option to contribute to workplace retirement plans.
• Take full advantage of any employer match.
• Consider diversifying retirement nest eggs with lifetime income.
• Meet with a financial advisor once a year.

Experts recommend working with a financial advisor, many of whom are more affordable than widely believed. They can help you curtail nonessential expenses and take advantage of tax deductions and credits, such as claiming dependents on tax returns. “Women often don’t get enough help from financial advisors who can help them jump-start their retirement savings,” Stern said.

The Bottom Line

Despite their longer life expectancy, women are less prepared for retirement than men. This retirement gap stems from caregiving responsibilities that disproportionately fall to women, decreasing earnings, limiting career advancement, and reducing retirement contributions throughout a woman’s working life. Recognizing these challenges early and implementing strategic financial planning can help women chip away at the retirement savings gap.

A major move is underway to enable far wider access to private investments. As platforms like EquityZen and Forge Global make it easier to invest in these vehicles, providers of traditional exchange-traded funds (ETF) are offering retail investors additional and indirect ways to access them.

Stoy Hall, a certified financial planner, CEO of Black Mammoth, and a member of Investopedia’s advisor council, advised caution if you’re considering any of these. More investors should “absolutely be seeking private investments,” Hall said, but he noted, “It is very difficult even for us professionals who vet opportunities constantly.” Below, we take you through the advice Hall and other experts have if you’re looking to dip into these alternative investments.

Key Takeaways

• Private market investments are becoming accessible for retail investors through new dedicated online platforms and exchange-traded funds (ETFs).
• These investments carry significant risks, including extreme illiquidity, limited transparency, and valuation problems that have burned even sophisticated investors.

What Are Private Investments?

When you put money into companies or assets not traded on public exchanges like the New York Stock Exchange, you’re engaging in private investments—just as you’re making a private investment when you buy some real estate. But unlike mutual funds or stocks and bonds that you can buy on public exchanges with a few clicks, private investments traditionally required large minimum commitments and were available only to institutional investors and high-net-worth individuals.

There are reasons why investors might wish to go the private investment route. “The private market returns are not correlated and can be higher and less risky than even the traditional market,” Hall said. However, these investments typically lock up your money for extended periods, often five to 10 years.

They also come with significantly less regulatory oversight and transparency than publicly traded investments.

Who Qualifies as an Accredited Investor?

The SEC limits many private investments to “accredited investors” who meet specific financial or professional criteria, including annual income exceeding $200,000 ($300,000 for joint income), net worth over $1 million (excluding your primary residence), or certain investment professionals.

Hall is critical of these restrictions, saying they were “designed to limit the ability of those less fortunate to have the opportunity to invest like the ‘ultra-wealthy.'” While that is a debatable opinion, the SEC has claimed its focus is on protecting retail investors from potential fraud and abuse in private equity markets, which are often opaque. However, the SEC and some lawmakers have now expressed a willingness to loosen the restrictions during President Donald Trump’s second term.

How To Invest in Private Markets

While the barriers to entry in private investments have come down, Hall and other experts are emphatic that the average investor needs help. “If you are attempting to do it alone, don’t,” Hall said. “Have a financial planner to guide you through this situation.”

Whether with an advisor or not, here are the steps Hall recommends:

1. Build your foundation first: “Investors should first establish a solid portfolio that is made up of ‘traditional’ investments (stocks, bonds, ETFs, etc.),” he said.
2. Set allocation limits: “Every portfolio should have 5% to 20% allocated to ‘alternative investments'” for diversification, Hall said. “Don’t put all your eggs in one basket and truly understand your entire portfolio picture.”
3. Only invest what you can afford to lose: “The easiest [safeguard] is to only invest money that you have that is investable,” Hall said.
4. Perform the due diligence: If reviewing prospects yourself, Hall suggests you vet the founder, CEO, or portfolio managers involved and speak to other investors. Anything not quite right? Move on quickly—even if you’re wrong, there are plenty of solid investments out there. “Do you like what the investment stands for, are you willing to lose all your money for this cause, do you truly understand their vision and purpose?” Hall said. “Follow your gut.”
5. Compare the risk and returns with other alternative asset classes: These might include cryptocurrencies, private companies, and precious metals.
6. Understand the fee structure: Private investment managers charge management fees of 1% to 2% plus performance fees of 12% to 20% of profits. EquityZen has a minimum investment of $10,000, and a one-time sales fee scaled from 3% to 5%. If you’re investing via an ETF, the fees will be lower: the SPDR SSGA Apollo IG Public & Private Credit ETF (PRIV) has an expense ratio of 0.70%.
7. Plan to be without your funds: Most private investments lock up your capital for five to 10 years. Never invest money you might need soon.

The Bottom Line

Private markets offer potential benefits but require significantly more research, professional guidance, and patience than public investments. While platforms advertise lower minimum investments, many still require accreditation status and substantial commitments that should only be made as part of a comprehensive financial plan.

As Hall emphasized, these investments can enhance your portfolio, but going it alone is a recipe for disaster.

There are no time limits, but there’s still no reason to delay a claim

Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez

Life insurance provides financial support for loved ones once a person passes away, especially if the deceased was the primary earner in the family. A life insurance policy is a contract between a policyholder and an insurance company that pays out a death benefit when the insured person dies.

While life insurance may be necessary, handling insurance claims can be tedious and further exacerbated if one is grieving. Most companies don’t impose a strict timeline for when beneficiaries have to make a claim.

Key Takeaways

• Life insurance helps families financially when a person passes away.
• Policy benefits can help with funeral costs, debt, rent, and other finances.
• Factors like type of policy and cause of death may add to the usual processing time of 30 to 60 days.
• Claims may be delayed due to state escheatment laws.

How Life Insurance Works

Individuals should regularly review their life insurance policies with their insurance broker or the insurer. Policies should be updated to include any life changes, such as death, divorce, or the birth of a child. Policyholders should understand the policy’s terms and any special conditions that may impact a payout.

When a life insurance policyholder dies, the beneficiary listed on the policy receives the death benefit. Often, the benefit may be used to help support the remaining family members to pay for items like debt, a child’s education, or mortgage payments.

According to Guardian Life Insurance, individuals may calculate their life insurance benefit needs based on the value of their future earnings. For example, policyholders aged 18-40 may buy a policy that pays thirty times their current income, or those aged 41-50 may need twenty times their income.

Policyholders can use the DIME method to determine how much life insurance they need by tallying their Debt, total future Income estimate, Mortgage payoff amount, and future Education costs.

Who Can Be a Beneficiary?

Anyone can be a beneficiary, including any family or non-family member. Additionally, entities and organizations such as charities can also be beneficiaries.

If there are multiple beneficiaries, disputes may arise, which may delay the claims process. This is particularly poignant when the policyholder didn’t update their policy after important life events, such as divorce. Issues caused by delays may require beneficiaries to go to court to receive the payout, which will cost time and money.

Claim Process

Most policies do not impose a strict timeline for an initial claim. Depending on the insurer, there may be clauses included in the policy regarding conditions that need to be met to receive the claim. Beneficiaries may have the option of receiving the payout as a lump sum or as a life insurance annuity, paid out regularly over a specified period. To claim a payout, beneficiaries commonly follow these steps:

1. Contact the insurer: Notify the insurer of the policyholder’s death and provide the basic information, such as the name of the deceased and the policy number, to get the process started.
2. Provide required documents: This usually includes the death certificate, the policyholder’s Social Security number, the policy number, and a death benefit claim form. If there’s more than one beneficiary, each person will have to complete a form and submit the required documentation to claim their portion of the benefit.
3. Follow up: Beneficiaries can expect to wait up to 60 days for a claim to finalize, but should follow up with the insurer as often as necessary.
4. Seek legal counsel: If there are issues with a claim or if the claim is denied, beneficiaries may need to seek legal help. An attorney specializing in life insurance law will be able to help navigate the process.

Statutory Time Limits

States have various insurance laws that could affect a beneficiary’s claim and when they get it. Some states have escheatment laws whereby uncollected claims go to the state’s unclaimed property office. While beneficiaries can still claim the benefit, this will significantly complicate the process. Here are additional points to consider:

• Contestability period: All life insurance policies generally have a contestability period of two years for the insurer to assess the policy for any signs of fraud or errors. Any claims made during this period may be delayed. After the contestability period expires, the insurer cannot deny the claim. They can deny a claim at any time if they identify fraud.
• Disputing denied claims: While there is no time limit on when a beneficiary can file an initial life insurance claim, there are time limits on how long they have to dispute a denied claim. This will depend on state rules. The same rule applies when a beneficiary sues a life insurance company.

Factors That Can Affect Claim Timelines

It generally takes 30 to 60 days for an insurer to pay out a life insurance claim; however, certain factors could delay the payout.

• Policy type: There are two primary life insurance policies available: term life and permanent life (whole life or universal life). Term life policies are straightforward and can be paid out easily. Permanent life policies include an investment component, are more complex, and may take longer to pay.
• Complexity: A policy may include special clauses or riders that make it more complicated, which in turn affects the timeliness of payouts. If a policy includes an accidental death rider, for example, the insurance company may ask for proof of the nature of the death.
• Cause of death: If the cause of death is out of the ordinary, the insurance company may take longer to investigate within the contestability period. For example, many policies have a suicide clause whereby the policy will not be paid out due to suicide if it occurs within a certain time frame after buying the policy.

Important

Individuals having suicidal thoughts can contact the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 988 for support and assistance from a trained counselor. Those in immediate danger should call 911. For more mental health resources, see the National Helpline Database.

The Bottom Line

Life insurance payouts can help support a family’s needs by paying off debt, funeral costs, rent, and mortgage payments. While there is no deadline imposed by insurers to file a life insurance claim, doing so sooner will avoid complications down the line, such as loss of documents, escheatment, and company delays.

Reviewed by Caitlin Clarke
Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez

The 2008 financial crisis was one of the most devastating financial episodes in modern history. It caused massive job losses, home foreclosures, company closures, and a global recession. Structural issues and wrongdoing by financial institutions culminated in an economic disaster.

Many key figures in the United States government and the financial industry played roles in the crisis, both in causing it and helping to recover from it. Below, we discuss some of them and where they are now.

Key Takeaways

• The 2008 financial crisis severely damaged the world economy and led to job losses, bank failures, and a severe recession.
• Key figures Henry Paulson, Ben Bernanke, and Timothy Geithner played major roles in the recovery, with several continuing to influence finance today.
• Some, such as Jamie Dimon, strengthened their careers, while others, such as Richard Fuld, saw their reputations destroyed.
• Only one investment banking executive served time for their role in the crisis.

Henry Paulson

Henry Paulson served as the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury from 2006 to 2009 under President George W. Bush. He played an important role in creating the $700 billion Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), which provided emergency bailout money to banks and other institutions to prevent a financial system collapse.

Some of the largest recipients of TARP funds were Citigroup, Bank of America, AIG, JPMorgan Chase, Wells Fargo, General Motors, Goldman Sachs, and Morgan Stanley.

Before serving as Treasury Secretary, Paulson was the CEO of Goldman Sachs. This gave him unique insight into the crisis.

After leaving office, Paulson created the Paulson Institute in 2011, focusing on environmental and economic policies. The organization is “dedicated to fostering global relationships that advance economic prosperity, promote sustainable growth, and maintain global order in a rapidly evolving world.”

He also wrote many books on the financial crisis, including “On the Brink,” published in 2010.

While he has primarily stepped away from politics, he weighs in on economic issues via speaking engagements and by writing articles for notable publications, such as The Washington Post.

Ben Bernanke

Ben Bernanke was chairman of the Federal Reserve from 2006 to 2014 and led its charge in responding to the financial crisis.

The Fed cut interest rates to stem the economic crisis and began very large quantitative easing programs. Interest rates went from 5.25% in June 2006 to between 0% and 0.25% in December 2008.

These actions helped stimulate the economy and stem the fallout from the crisis. After serving his term as Fed chairman, Bernanke joined the Brookings Institution as a distinguished fellow with the Economic Studies program.

In 2022, Bernanke won the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for research on banks and financial crises. As of 2025, he works consulting and is invited to speak on financial issues.

Timothy Geithner

During the financial crisis, Timothy Geithner was the President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. He oversaw the bailout of institutions based in New York, such as AIG and certain banks. He also played a role in the decision to let Lehman Brothers collapse.

Geithner became the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury under President Obama, further overseeing the nation’s economic recovery from the financial crisis. He expanded TARP and ensured recipients paid back bailout money as quickly as possible.

He was involved in the Obama administration’s $787 billion American Recovery and Investment Act.

After completing his term in 2013, Geithner joined the private sector, serving as chairman of Warburg Pincus, a private equity firm.

Geithner wrote a 2015 memoir about the financial crisis called “Stress Test.”

As of 2025, he is the chair of the Program on Financial Stability at Yale University. In addition, he serves as co-chair of the Aspen Economic Strategy Group and is a member of the International Rescue Committee Board of Advisors.

Richard Fuld

Richard Fuld was the last CEO of Lehman Brothers, one of the most prestigious financial firms on Wall Street. It collapsed during the economic crisis when the government refused to bail it out. Its bankruptcy reverberated through the global financial markets.

Lehman was a big player in the mortgage-backed securities (MBS) space, and poorly structured MBS were a main cause of the financial crisis. When Lehman filed for bankruptcy in 2008, it had $613 billion in debt.

With his legacy forever tarnished, Fuld disappeared from the public spotlight for many years. In 2016, he founded the asset management firm, Matrix Private Capital Group, where he still serves as chairman.

Important

Kareem Serageldin, a managing director and trader at Credit Suisse Group, was the only Wall Street investment banking executive to go to jail for their role in the 2007-2008 financial crisis.

John Mack

John Mack was the CEO of Morgan Stanley, which was on the verge of collapse but saved by a government bailout and a $9 billion investment from Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group. Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group’s investment gave Mitsubishi 21% control of Morgan Stanley.

Like others, Mack wrote a book on the financial crisis about his time at Morgan Stanley entitled “Up Close and All In.” He has also served on various boards, such as New Fortress Energy and Glencore.

Lloyd Blankfein

During the financial crisis, Lloyd Blankfein was the CEO of Goldman Sachs. The company survived thanks to a $10 billion government bailout and by converting itself into a bank holding company in order to access emergency funding.

Blankfein remained at Goldman Sachs until 2018. Since then, he has served as a Compass Speaker for the Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Foundation, and frequently provides insight into economics and finance at business events and media appearances.

Jamie Dimon

Jamie Dimon is the CEO of JPMorgan Chase, a position he held during the financial crisis. His reputation improved during that period as he deftly handled the fallout. It helped that JPMorgan avoided the worst of subprime mortgage lending.

Under his leadership during the period, JPMorgan acquired Bear Stearns and Washington Mutual at extremely low prices, though Dimon would go on to say that the acquisitions were not the best strategic decisions.

Jamie Dimon continues to be an important figure in finance in 2025. JPMorgan has become the most prominent bank in the U.S. and his advice is often sought by the media, other professionals, and politicians.

Note

JPMorgan Chase is the largest bank in the U.S. and the fifth-largest bank in the world by assets.

Ken Lewis

Ken Lewis was the CEO of Bank of America during the financial crisis. During that period, he oversaw the purchase of Merrill Lynch and Countrywide Financial, poor decisions that nearly ruined the bank due to the toxic assets held by these entities.

Lewis was later sued by regulators in a civil case for misleading shareholders, and he settled by paying $10 million to resolve the claims. Since retiring in 2009, he has remained out of public view.

Kathleen Corbet

Many MBSs contained subprime mortgages at the time of the financial crisis. Yet their credit ratings, which were higher than warranted, didn’t reflect this.

Though most investors believed MBS to be safe, when subprime borrowers defaulted on their mortgages, the securities built on them plummeted in value, with many becoming worthless. Credit rating agency Standard & Poor’s was heavily criticized.

Kathleen Corbet was president of S&P from 2004 to 2007. She resigned shortly before the crisis, but many of the MBS were rated under her tenure, and it is assumed she was asked to step down as criticism grew.

Since leaving S&P, Corbet has served on many boards, such as MassMutual Financial, Waveny Lifecare Network, and BlackRock TCP Capital. She is a venture capitalist entrepreneur and founded Cross Ridge Capital, a venture capital consulting firm.

George W. Bush

George W. Bush was the U.S. president during the financial crisis. He supported the various measures used to combat it, including TARP. As the collapse occurred towards the end of his time in office, it overshadowed his second term, and much of the recovery was handed over to the Obama administration.

Since leaving office, Bush has largely remained out of the spotlight, focusing primarily on his philanthropic activities, his art, and veterans’ issues.

He does not partake in economic, financial, or political discussions much, though he has written several books about his time in office and after.

The Bottom Line

The 2008 financial crisis was a catastrophic moment for the global economy, causing distress for people all over the world. It also affected the careers and lives of the people at the center of it.

While many key figures have gone on to have successful careers and remain influential in the financial sphere, others had their reputations damaged and faded from the public eye.

The lessons of the crisis can be seen today in economic, government, and financial policies designed to ensure that such disastrous events don’t happen again.

Reviewed by Eric Estevez

What Are the Top Five Companies Owned by DuPont?

E.I. Du Pont De Nemours and Company was founded in 1802 as a gunpowder mill by Éleuthère Irénée du Pont. Most of us know it by its more common name, DuPont (DD). The American conglomerate is one of the world’s largest producers of chemicals and science-based products.

Headquartered in Wilmington, Delaware, DuPont is responsible for developing innovative materials such as Teflon, Mylar, Dacron, Lycra, and Orlon. In August 2017, the company merged with Dow Chemical, forming DowDuPont. The two split in 2019, which was the same time that DuPont spun off its agricultural chemicals into a separate company. The result was three separate companies: Cortiva, Dow, and DuPont.

Acquisitions aren’t new to DuPont. In fact, it has acquired a number of companies over the years that continue to help it grow its broad range of science-based products. The following is a list of the top five companies under the DuPont umbrella.

Key Takeaways

• DuPont is one of the world’s largest producers of chemicals and science-based products.
• The company merged with Dow Chemical in 2017, formed a new company called DowDuPont and split two years later, forming three subsidiaries.
• Over its long history, DuPont has acquired a number of companies that have helped grow its broad range of products, including Danisco and Pioneer.

1. Danisco

• Acquired: 2011
• Purchase Price: $6.3 billion

Danisco A/S was established in 1989. It is a Danish-based biotech company with a range of “specialty food ingredients, including enablers, cultures and sweeteners.” Danisco specializes in producing enzymes that are used to preserve foods and make biofuels.

Now operating under the name DuPont Danisco, it is one of the largest producers of the thickening agent guar gum and the gelling agent carrageenan, which adds texture and stability to dairy desserts, processed cheeses, and jellies. The company claims that its ingredients are in much of the world’s ice cream.

This company also develops many natural enzymes and antioxidants that preserve the shelf life of food worldwide.

2. Pioneer

• Acquired: 1999
• Purchase Price: $7.7 billion

Founded in 1926, DuPont Pioneer is a large U.S. producer of hybrid seeds for agriculture. The Iowa-based company is one of the largest producers of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), specializing in genetically modified crops with insect or herbicide resistance.

Pioneer produces, markets, and sells hybrid seed corn, sorghum, sunflower, cotton, soybean, alfalfa, canola, rice, wheat, and other seeds in more than 125 countries.

3. Corian

Created by DuPont scientists in 1967, Corian is the brand name for a solid surface material marketed by DuPont primarily as a countertop and is composed of acrylic polymer and alumina trihydrate.

Along with DuPont’s similar solid surface material Zodiaq quartz, Corian is used in the residential and commercial design industries, as well as food service and health care.

These durable products have many applications because they can be designed and cut to order. Common uses for Corian include public bathroom stalls, office partitions, and kitchen countertops.

Note

As part of its 2024 Sustainability Report, DuPont reported $12.1 billion of net sales earned by its 24,000 employees.

4. Tyvek

Tyvek is a synthetic material developed and marketed by DuPont. The strong material is primarily used as a house wrap that protects buildings during construction. It allows water vapor to pass through while blocking liquids.

It also provides buildings with additional insulation and resists wood rot and mold growth. DuPont trademarked the material in 1965 and began selling Tyvek in 1967.

Tyvek is also used in protective shipping envelopes and in a line of protective apparel for industrial workers that includes laboratory coats and coveralls. It is often used for light hazmat applications, such as asbestos and radiation work. Tyvek’s sub-brand Tychem is rated for a higher level of liquid protection from chemicals.

5. Kevlar

Kevlar was developed by DuPont in 1965. It was first used commercially in the 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. The high-strength material is typically spun into ropes or fabric sheets. Its applications include:

• Body armor
• Personal protection equipment
• Automotive
• Fiber optic cables

Due to its high tensile strength-to-weight ratio, it is considered to be five times stronger than steel.

Kevlar is used in a wide variety of consumer products, such as tires, socks and shoes, sports equipment, and mobile phone cases. While it has many other applications, Kevlar is best known for its use in ballistic and stab-resistant body armor for law enforcement and the military around the world.

What Does DuPont Make?

DuPont was established in 1802 as a gunpowder manufacturer. The company expanded its footprint to a variety of industries, including aerospace, automotive, building and construction, electronics, energy, medical, manufacturing, packaging, and water protection. Some of the products that come with the DuPont name include adhesives, construction materials, fabrics, medical devices, personal protective equipment, and solar solutions.

What Role Does the DuPont Family Play in the Business?

DuPont was founded by Eleuthère Irénée du Pont in 1802 as a manufacturer of gunpowder. He left France and came to the United States during the French Revolution. The company, which expanded its footprint beyond gunpowder, was family-owned until it went public. Eleuthère I. du Pont, one of the heirs to the family fortune, was appointed to the company’s board in 2019.

Where Is DuPont Based?

DuPont is headquartered in Wilmington, Delaware, but the company has businesses all over the world. According to its website, DuPont has offices, manufacturing centers, and other business units in more than 50 different countries.

What Is the DuPont Analysis?

The DuPont analysis is a popular financial tool that can help analysts and investors determine a company’s profitability. It was developed in 1914 by F. Donaldson Brown, who was an employee of the DuPont Corporation, to analyze and compare the operational efficiency and profitability of two related companies. Donaldson combined earnings, investment, and working capital into return on investment (ROI). Once used exclusively by DuPont, it became a financial tool for other companies.

Reviewed by Andy Smith
Fact checked by David Rubin

The equity method and the proportional consolidation method are two types of accounting methods used when two companies are part of a joint venture. Which one is used depends on the way the companies’ balance sheets and income statements report these partnerships.

Note that since 2013, for the most part, only the equity method is still in use.

Key Takeaways

• The equity method of corporate accounting is used to value a company’s investment in a joint venture when it holds significant influence over the company it is investing in.
• The proportional consolidation method of accounting looks at income, expenses, assets, and liabilities in proportion to a firm’s percentage of participation in a joint venture. 
• As of 2013, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) abolished the use of proportional consolidation and it is no longer recognized by IFRS.

Joint Ventures

A joint venture is a type of business agreement involving two or more parties that group their available resources in a common undertaking. Each party in a joint venture has a certain amount of control and responsibility for the costs associated with the venture, as well as sharing profits or losses. Joint ventures are commonly used to invest in foreign and emerging market economies.

Joint ventures offer an expedient way for companies and individuals to pool knowledge, expertise, and resources to accomplish a potentially lucrative deal while decreasing each party’s exposure to risk. The joint venture is an enterprise in and of itself, separated and set apart from any other business deals or interests in which the partnered companies are involved.

The Equity Method

The equity method of accounting is used to assess the profits earned by their investments in other companies. The firm reports the income earned on the investment of its income statement. Under the equity method, the reported value is based on the size of the equity investment.

If a company holds more than 20% of another company’s stock, the company has significant control where it can exert influence over the other company. The initial investment is recorded at cost and each quarter adjustments are made depending on the value at the end of the period.

For example, Company A buys 10,000 shares of Company B at $10 per share; Company A would record the investment cost of $100,000 for the initial period. Any profit or income on the investment in the coming years would also reflect changes in the value of the investment.

The value reported by each company represents only that firm’s relative share of the costs and assets. This equity method of accounting is more commonly used when one company in a joint venture has a recognizably greater level of influence or control over the venture than the other.

If a firm comes to a point where it is no longer maintaining any significant level of control over the investment, the equity method can no longer be used. At that point, a new value is recorded in the company’s profit and loss records, determined on the basis of the current cost.

The Proportional Consolidation Method

The proportional consolidation method of accounting records the assets and liabilities of a joint venture on a company’s balance sheet in proportion to the percentage of participation a company maintains in the venture. In calculating those assets and liabilities, the company would list all income and expenses from the joint venture and include them on its balance sheet and income statement.

For example, if Company A has 50% controlling interest over Company X, Company A would record the investment at 50% of the assets, liabilities, revenues, and expenses of Company X. So if Company A has revenues of $100 million and Company X has revenues of $40 million, Company A would have in total $120 million.

Those favoring the proportional consolidation method argue that it provides a more accurate and detailed record because it breaks down how well a joint venture performs. This method allows each company to see the operational effectiveness of various steps in the joint venture process including production costs, shipping costs, and the profit margin.

Accounting Rules

Under the U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), a firm’s interest in a joint venture is accounted for using the equity method.

Moreover, since 2013 the proportional method has largely been abandoned. In addressing accounting for joint ventures, the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) sought to eliminate inconsistencies in the reporting of “joint arrangements,” which the IFRS classifies as either “joint operations” or “joint ventures,” in accordance with IFRS 11. International Accounting Standards (IAS) 31 merged joint operations and joint ventures, and IFRS 11 requires the use of the equity method and the abolition of the proportional consolidation method.

Though the proportional consolidation method was previously accepted by the IFRS, it also allowed the use of the equity method.

The Bottom Line

There are proponents for the use of each of these accounting methods, and different accounting standards organizations are split as to which is the more appropriate practice. Companies generally use the method that fits best with their overall operations and existing accounting practices.

The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) decided it was no longer appropriate to use proportional consolidation effective Jan. 1, 2013.

Actionable insights from a financial advisor

I once had a client who made many trips to the post office when she was going through a divorce. She wasn’t mailing legal documents to her attorney. Rather, she was seeking comfort from the pain of the breakup through online spending sprees, and ultimately returning many of the purchases she bought that overspent her budget.

As financial planners, we frequently detect emotional influences behind our clients’ decisions—when they turn to money to react to feelings of stress, sadness, or even joy. Thankfully, there are ways we can put them back on the right financial track.

Key Takeaways

• Goal setting, like creating a financial plan, empowers clients to stay on track and resist impulse purchases.
• Budgeting tools can help clients identify “for fun” purchases and help them have a clearer vision of their spending.
• The 24-hour rule encourages clients to pause before making non-essential purchases, helping them align spending with their financial goals.
• Seeking professional support from financial therapists can significantly improve clients’ financial behaviors and well-being.

What I’m Telling My Clients

Here are the key steps I use with clients to navigate these delicate conversations:

1. Start With Goal Setting

 Work with clients to help them establish financial goals. By mapping out these, clients can better resist impulse purchases, knowing they have financial markers to reach. For instance, understanding the number you need to save for retirement or your child’s college education can help dissuade against purchases that detract from that.

Note

According to Schwab’s 2024 Modern Wealth Survey, of the people who reported having a written financial plan, 76% said they’re more in control of their finances because of it.

2. Use Spending Management Tools

Budgeting tools are a great way to keep clients on track. By knowing how much they have allotted towards “for fun” purchases, they will better understand when it’s time to splurge and when to hold off.

3. Practice The 24-Hour Rule

I suggest the 24-hour rule, whereby clients should wait 24 hours before making non-essential purchases. This allows clients to consider whether the purchase supports their financial goals. One of my clients was able to eliminate a $900 monthly budget deficit using this practice!

Tip

I encourage clients to replace the short-term relief of spending with physical exercise, mindfulness practices, or hobbies. These can also provide bonus effects, like helping boost self-esteem and overall fitness.

The Bottom Line

Not only do we help our clients make more rational decisions by acknowledging the psychological aspects of spending, but we also promote their overall well-being.

By mapping out their goals, offering budgeting and time management tactics, and knowing when to offer professional support, we can help clients combat their emotional spending. This ultimately paves the way towards greater financial security and independence they can carry throughout their lives.

​The legendary investor Warren Buffett has repeatedly denounced the efficient market hypothesis (EMH), which claims that stock prices reflect all relevant information and always trade at their fair value. Beyond simple luck, this should make it impossible to consistently beat the market. Pointing to his own success, Buffett instead argues that savvy investors can achieve superior results through meticulous analysis and disciplined investing strategies.

Yet, Buffett has long promoted the view that retail investors should mostly use index funds, which seems to conflict with his critiques of the EMH since that passive strategy tends to align with EMH principles. We take you through how he resolves this seeming contradiction below.

Key Takeaways

• According to the EMH, stock prices reflect all available information, suggesting that it’s impossible for investors to find undervalued stocks.
• Buffett argues against the EMH by pointing to examples of value investors, including himself, who have outperformed the market.
• Still, Buffett recommends that non-professional investors should choose low-cost index funds because successful value investing takes time and expertise.

What Are ‘Efficient’ Markets?

The EMH describes financial markets as “informationally efficient,” where asset prices incorporate all available information instantly. The EMH suggests that trying to time the market can’t consistently generate better returns than the broader market (especially after fees and taxes) because any information affecting a company’s value would already be reflected in its stock price.

It’s no coincidence that passive index funds got their start in the 1970s, not long after major discussions about the EMH by economists. These funds focus on replicating market returns instead of outperforming them overall.

Buffett’s Contrarian View

Buffett has said that while the market is “generally fairly efficient,” he doesn’t think that supports an EMH strategy in investing, arguing that taking that approach would be a “terrible, terrible mistake.” Instead, he has said that investing is about valuing businesses.

“It’s crucial to understand that stocks often trade at truly foolish prices, both high and low. ‘Efficient’ markets exist only in textbooks,” Buffett wrote to stockholders in 2022. To bolster his case, Buffett has pointed to successful value investors, including his mentor Benjamin Graham, who consistently outperformed the market by identifying and buying undervalued stocks. 

More to the point, Buffett’s own impressive results suggest he’s right to doubt market efficiency. His management of Berkshire Hathaway Inc.’s (BRK.A) portfolio has resulted in returns that far exceed market averages across lengthy spans, which he says proves that dedicated analysis and disciplined investment practices can yield better performance.

Buffett’s Advice for Average Investors

Still, Buffett argues that despite his investment success and critique of EMH, most individual investors should choose low-cost index funds, including a sizable allocation to an S&P 500 index fund.

Although the advice appears in conflict, it just means different investors should have different strategies that fit their goals, lifestyle, and risk tolerance. Buffett recognizes that active value investing can beat the market, but doing so takes time, expertise, and strong emotional control that most investors don’t have. 

So, instead of trying to time the market, he advises buying index funds by putting a set amount aside, regardless of market conditions. Known as dollar-cost averaging, this strategy removes emotion from the equation and ensures investors always have a stake in the gains from the market’s long-term growth.

“The goal of the non-professional should not be to pick winners,” Buffett wrote in a letter to shareholders in 2013. Instead, they should “own a cross-section of businesses that in aggregate are bound to do well. A low-cost S&P 500 index fund will achieve this goal.”

Buffett has wryly noted he might need to thank EMH proponents for some of his success. “Naturally the disservice done students and gullible investment professionals who have swallowed EMT has been an extraordinary service to us,” he wrote in 1988. “In any sort of a contest—financial, mental, or physical—it’s an enormous advantage to have opponents who have been taught that it’s useless to even try.”

The Bottom Line

Although Buffett argues against the idea that markets price in all available information—something opposed to his own value investing approach—he supports index fund investing for most people, given the real difficulties of beating market performance consistently.